© Benaki Phytopathological Institute
Neonicotinoids Biomonitoring: A review
41
active substance and 56 were acute IMI self-
poisoning. IMI residues were detected in 28
patients with a median admission plasma
concentration of 10.6 ng/L.
Kumar
et al.
(2013)
reported an acciden-
tal human poisoning with IMI, from rural In-
dia. The case report regarded a 60-year-old
farmer that was exposed through inhala-
tion. After hospitalization, the man was re-
leased. Data regarding IMI concentration in
fluids was not provided, possibly due to the
route of exposure. The same year, Lin
et al.
(2013) published a paper regarding a case
report from Taiwan. The latter considered a
suicide attempt by ingesting an IMI formu-
lation. The authors, however, did not refer
to IMI concentrations in biological fluids. An
overview of cases reported until 2013 was
also presented, including clinical details that
are useful in incidents that end up to hospi-
talization and subsequent treatment of pa-
tients.
Fuke
et al.
(2014) reported the detection
of IMI in biological fluids in a case of fatal in-
toxication. The authors developed an HPLC-
DAD method monitoring IMI and 6-CNA.
Specimens studied were whole blood, ce-
rebrospinal fluid, humor, and urine. Sample
preparation consisted of initial vortex mix-
ing of a low volume of the liquid sample and
concomitant extraction with ACN. Evapora-
tion and two centrifugation steps provided
the organic phase that was injected to the
HPLC system. Prior to HPLC, a screening with
GC-MS verified the presence of IMI, howev-
er, the poor chromatographic performance,
favored HPLC analysis. Validation was per-
formed after spiking drug-free blank blood.
All validation characteristics were accept-
able, with recoveries for IMI ranging from 86
to 105% for all fluids. 6-CNA was not detect-
ed in the samples analyzed. IMI in the fem-
oral blood reached a maximum concentra-
tion of 105 μg/mL. Regarding cerebrospinal
fluid its concentration was approximate-
ly half the one determined in the femo-
ral blood. In this fatal case, since no other
cause of death was evidenced, IMI intoxica-
tion was the cause of death. Same year Yeter
and Aydn reported on the determination of
ACET and one of its metabolites after fatal
intoxications (Yeter and Aydin, 2014). Both
biological fluids (postmortem blood and
urine) and tissues were processed. Chro-
matographic analysis revealed ACET at 2.7
μg/mL in blood while its metabolite was not
evidenced. None of the compounds was de-
tected in urine samples.
Yeh
et al.
(2010) reported the acute mul-
tiple organ failure with IMI and alcohol in-
gestion. Specifically a 67-year-old man was
transferred to the emergency in Taiwan hos-
pital, after ingestion of an unknown amount
of an insecticide containing IMI mixed with
liquor. The incident led to arrhythmia and
multiple organ failure within hours of in-
take. This incident argued the belief of the
low mammalian toxicity of IMI and added a
point to the increasing evidence that IMI can
provoke kidney damage and other organ
damages. Same year Iyyadurai
et al.
(2010)
reported a fatal incident regarding IMI, af-
ter a suicidal attempt. The authors although
stated (an often shortcoming also observed
in other studies) that no data regarding se-
rum IMI level were available.
Forrester (2014) provided an overall pic-
ture of NNDs exposure that occurred in Tex-
as, USA, from 2000 to 2012. Of 1,142 expo-
sures the 77% contained IMI and in less
extent DINOT (17%). Both substances were
detected along with other active substances
as well. A seasonal trend favored mid-spring
to mid-summer exposure reaching 50%. Al-
most all NNDs were detected including NI-
TEN, ACET, THIAM, and CLOTH. The most
common routes of exposure were ingestion,
accounting for a 51%, dermal (44%) and oc-
ular (11%).
Greek IMI biomonitoring
Our group the last decade is involved in
biomonitoring studies in which pesticides
are the target analytes (Kasiotis
et al
., 2008;
Kasiotis
et al
. 2011; Kasiotis
et al
., 2012). In the
frames of the ECOPEST project (ECOPEST) a
biomonitoring study was conducted (blood
and urine) that included 27 farmers. These
farmers among several field applications,
they applied seed treatment with IMI in cot-
